Are political parties still the central actors in politics Essay

Are political parties still the central actors in politics - Essay Example Politics, therefore, does not occur in a proverbial vacuum, consisting of a variety of interactions between society and the political actor and other relevant political figures that maintain responsibility for community governance. Politicians are often affiliated with a specific political party, an organisation that aims to influence the development of government party that are considered appropriate for securing the party’s objectives and agendas. Political parties serve as coalitions consisting of like-minded politicians that have the same ideologies and expectations for government. The question at hand is whether political parties are still the central actors in politics. Though political parties are highly influential and often serve as the underpinning for how politicians identify themselves comparatively to other political figures, there is little evidence that political parties are the principle actor along a political model or system. In fact, it would appear that the media is now the central actor in politics as media services a much broader role in society as it pertains to political activity. The media is able to influence politicians and societal members, promote real-time political activities, engage society about politically-relevant events, and even serve to expose questionable political behaviours. Political parties are no longer the central actor in politics. Political party affiliation is a method by which to classify a politician and their unique agendas as compared to other politicians. In the United States, political parties were established in the late 1700s when it became clear to those running for public office that they would need to garner public support to obtain a majority vote competitively (Nichols 1967). As there were no established political parties in the United States prior to 1787, the ideologies of the Republican Party and the Democratic Party (the two main parties in the country) became

Employee Motivational Theories and Concepts Essay Example for Free

Employee Motivational Theories and Concepts Essay Numerous theories on the subject of employee motivation have been developed and published for the better part of this century. While early employers thought of their workers as just another input into the production of goods and services (Lindner, 1998), employees were becoming increasingly dissatisfied with working conditions and malevolent management. As post-war, labor tensions mounted in the 1920s, employers needed to change their approach to employee relations if they were to avoid costly, and sometimes violent, labor strikes. Early motivational theories set the foundation for the development of 20th century concepts, including the move to get â€Å"Googled† and motivational techniques based on business strengths found in the corporate toolbox. Early Motivational Theories George Elton Mayo, an Australian-born psychologist and Harvard Professor, began significant research in 1927 in an attempt to demonstrate that employees, if appropriately motivated, are more productive and can achieve greater return through appropriate human relationship management techniques (Trahair Zaleznik, 2005). This research, referred to as the â€Å"Hawthorne Studies,† found that employees are not only motivated by financial gain, but also by the behavior and attitude of their supervisors. During these studies, the employees responded positively to the mere fact that they were receiving attention from their supervisor as a result of the experiment. In his article, Gordon Marshall (1998) noted that â€Å"the term ‘Hawthorne effect’ is now widely used to refer to the behavior-modifying effects of being the subject of social investigation, regardless of the context of the investigation. More generally, the researchers concluded that supervisory style greatly affected worker productivity† (para. 1) and that â€Å"enhanced productivity therefore depends on management sensitivity to, and manipulation of, the ‘human relations’ of production† (para. 2). This represented a dramatic paradigm shift for employers and theorists alike. Subsequent to the conclusion of the infamous Hawthorne Studies, five primary motivational theories have developed that have increased the understanding of what truly motivates employees. They are Maslow’s need-hierarchy, Hertzberg’s two-factor system, Vroom’s expectancy theory, Adam’s equity theory, and Skinner’s reinforcement theory. Maslow identified that employees, in general, have five primary levels of needs that include psychological (e.g. air, food, shelter), safety (e.g. security, order, stability), belongingness (e.g. love, family, relationships), esteem (e.g. achievement, status, responsibility), and self-actualization (McLeod, 2007). Maslow further noted that, in order to provide motivation, the lower levels would need to be satisfied before one progressed to the higher levels. Hertzberg classified motivation into two, distinct factors. He believed that intrinsic factors (or motivators) produce job satisfaction through achievement and recognition while extrinsic (or hygiene) factors produce dissatisfaction. He identified extrinsic factors to be associated with compensation and perceived job security, or lack thereof. Vroom theorized that demonstrated effort would lead to performance which, in turn, would lead to reward (either positive or negative). The more positive the reward the more highly motivated the employee would be. To the contrary, negative rewards would result in a lesser motivated employee. Adams found that employees want to ensure that there is a sense of fairness and equity between themselves and their co-workers. He believed that equity is achieved when employees are contributing, in terms of input and output, at the same rate. Skinner’s theory was likely the most simplistic, He established that employees will repeat behaviors that lead to positive outcomes and eliminate or minimize behaviors that lead to negative outcomes. He conceived that, if managers positively reinforce desired behavior, it would lead to positive outcomes and that managers should negatively reinforce employee behavior that leads to negative outcomes (Lindner, 1998). James R. Lindner, Professor of Management and Research at Ohio State University, has conducted extensive research on this topic. In his paper â€Å"Understanding Employee Motivation,† he further extrapolated on the five theories, providing a comparative analysis, and offering a summary definition that focuses on the psychological process and â€Å"inner force† associated with the accomplishment of personal and organizational goals (Lindner, 1998). 20th Century Concepts In addition to studying popular theories associated with employee motivation, Lindner (1998) includes the methodology and outcomes of an independent study, conducted at Ohio State University, that sought to rank the importance of ten motivating factors. The results of this study were compelling; with â€Å"interesting work† ranking as number one over other more commonly identified motivators, such as wages and job security. In comparing these results with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, among others, he found that the results are mixed, with the highest ranked factor (interesting work) being one of self-actualization and contrary to Maslow’s findings (Lindner, 1998). This presents a divergent result that challenges Maslow’s assumption that the lower needs must be satisfied before a person can achieve their potential and self-actualize (McLeod, 2007, para.16). This does not negate Maslow’s work, but rather demonstrates that a natural evolution may have taken place with the modern workforce due to the progression of motivation strategies. This is a credit to the work of early theorists, and a call to arms for those that continue this research. Get Googled But history has yet to definitively answer the question, â€Å"what is the best method(s) to motivate employees?† The imprecise answer continues to be: it depends. Many successful organizations incorporate a variety of programs aimed at motivating their employees, based on their specific population. Google Inc., for example, is leading the way to restructure management so that employees can streamline creative ideas that produce blockbuster new products. They are rewarding employees with perks like onsite swimming pools, allowing employees to bring their pets to work, providing onsite child care, and all the free food employees want (â€Å"How Google Inc. Rewards Its Employees,† 2010, Thinking Leaders, para.1). While this may not be realistic for every organization, there is something to be said about the fact that Google, Inc. is consistently ranked by Fortune magazine as the best place in the U.S. to work. However there are things that a company can do to motivate their employees that are low or no cost and likely already exist in their corporate toolbox. The Corporate Toolbox Most successful organizations pride themselves on their ability to promote their product or service to achieve the desired level of profitability. They develop strategic plans, set production goals and persuade their customers that they are best of the best in their field. They are advertisers and peddlers of wares. So what does this have to do with motivation? Robert Hershey, Director of James E. Rogers College of Law at the University of Arizona and contributing author to the Journal of Managerial Psychology, contends that there is a significant correlation between an organization’s ability to successfully promote their business and thrive at motivating their employees. He notes that â€Å"we do not need one more theory of motivation; we need better insight into the psychology of advertising. We can take some tried-and-true product advertising techniques that have been found to be effective and use them in a human resources and management context. But before we do that, the point must be made that, as a practical matter, our vocabulary and attention require a shift from the motivation jargon of needs, expectancy, two-factor theories, etc., to an emphasis on communications practices, because persuasion requires the transmission of information† (Hershey, 1993). If Hershey is correct, then an emphasis on communication and inclusion would create an environment ripe for employee motivation. One could also argue that, if communication is key, allowing input and empowered decision making is the next logical step to producing a motivated employee. Carolyn Wiley, Professor of Business at Roosevelt University, concurs with this notion and provides the following supporting statements in her article â€Å"Creating an Environment for Employee Motivation†: When employees have an opportunity to provide input, this increases their survival rate and their sense of commitment. In many very small companies, a natural sense of owners hip often develops among the employees. However, as companies grow, feelings of ownership and commitment start to decline. To increase commitment as the organization grows, managers must change how they define who retains control. Shared decision making is essential both to company success and employee survival. Workers generally do not resist their own ideas and decisions. Rather, they are motivated to fulfill them. (Wiley, 1992, para.14) While this may seem threatening to traditional leaders, it should not be viewed as surrendering control. Employees that are empowered through inclusion are ambassadors for organizational success. It is only through mutual success that both the employee and company thrive. It seems so simple, but eludes even the most progressive of companies. Most organizations are more inclined to spend thousands of dollars creating recognition programs, building home office environments, developing bonus structures and hosting employee appreciation events rather than recognizing that most employees are merely looking to be valued. The same attention that motivated the Hawthorne workers applies to the modern employee who just wants to contribute and receive credit for their effort. Conclusion There is certainly compelling evidence to indicate that employee motivation comes in many forms. Whether one places their belief in the theoretical assumptions of a Maslow or Hertzberg, their financial backing in the creation of a Google-esque environment, or capitalize on their organizational strengths to communicate and persuade, there is clear agreement that the ability to successfully motivate employees is essential for corporate success and sustainability. The concept of positive human relation management has finally taken its place at the forefront of organizational strategies and, with it, the evolution of employee motivation. References Trahair, R. Zaleznik, A. (2005). Elton Mayo: The Humanist Temper. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers Marshall, G. (1998). A Dictionary of Sociology; Hawthorne Studies. Retrieved from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O88-Hawthornestudies.html Lindner, James R. (1998). Journal of Extension; Understanding Employee Motivation. Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/rb3.php McLeod, S. A. (2007). Simply Psychology; Maslow Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html How Google Inc. rewards its employees. (2010). Retrieved from Thinking Leaders website: http://www.thinkingleaders.com/archives/517 Hershey, R. (1993). A practitioner’s view of motivation. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 8(3), 10-10. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.arbor.edu:80/login?url=http://search.proquest. com/docview/ 215865845?accountid=13998 Wiley, C. (1992). Create an environment for employee motivation. HR Focus, 69(6), 14-14. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.arbor.edu:80/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/ docview/206781828?ac countid=13998

Conflict In Horn Of Africa Causes And Solutions History Essay

Conflict In Horn Of Africa Causes And Solutions History Essay The conflict in horn of Africa has been going on for centuries. Many people lost their lives due to the unsolved territorial problems between Ethiopia and Somalia and between Ethiopia and Eretria. As we know those countries engaged in a fierce war with each other for quit long period of time which prompted a lot of suffering among the populations of those countries. One might be asking what the cause of this conflict is and why it is so difficult to solve the disputes in a peaceful means and manner. I shall discuss and answer such questions concerning these issues in the following chapters, and I shall write about the root causes of the conflict both historically and politically. In this assignment I will concentrate merely on two countries and they are Somalia and Ethiopia. .Reason for the selection of the topic The main reason which I chose this topic is to illuminate the issue of horn of Africa (Somalia and Ethiopia), in terms of political and social problems caused by a bitter and prolonged war which, the international media, rarely cover its root causes and eventually Ill suggest some ideas which might be important if it is to solve the problem between the countries for good. Problem: What is the reason that the countries in horn of Africa (Ethiopia and Somalia) engaged a fierce war with each other? 2.0. A short background of Somalia Somalia locates in horn of Africa and many Somali people are nomads who move from place to another to get a green pasture for their animals. Somalis are homogeneous people who share same language, culture and religion Somalia. As it is the case in many African countries, Somalia is colonized by British in North Somalia and Italia in south, better known as British Somaliland, Italian Somaliland and French Somaliland (modern Djibouti). The colonizers not only divided Somalia but also annexed western part of Somalia territory (known as Ogaden) to Ethiopia while they gave south western part of Somalia territory (known as NFD) to Kenya. This divide and rule approach caused tremendous war and conflict among the neighboring nations for many years. The war in 1960,s and 1970,s between the two countries attracted the attention of the world Britain withdrew from British Somaliland in 1960 to allow its protectorate to join with Italian Somaliland and form the new state of Somalia. In 1969, a coup headed by Mohamed SIAD Barre led an authoritarian socialist rule that managed to impose a degree of stability in the country for a couple of decades. One of the main successes achieved by Siad Barre in his term was the orthography or writing of Somali language for the first in Somalia history. After the regimes collapse early in 1991, Somalia descended into chaos and factional fighting, and turmoil. In May 1991, northern clans declared an independent Republic of Somaliland that now includes the administrative regions of Awdal, Waqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag, and Sool. Although not recognized by the international, this region has maintained a quit stability in comparison with the south of the country and continues efforts to get recognition by establishing a constitutional democracy, including holding municipal, parliamentary, and presidential elections. 2.1. Short background of Ethiopia Ethiopia is in east-central Africa, bordered on the west by the Sudan, the east by Somalia and Djibouti, the south by Kenya, and the northeast by Eritrea. The Blue Nile rises in the northwest and flows in a great semicircle before entering the Sudan. Its chief reservoir, Lake Tana, lies in the northwest. Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia on Oct. 3, 1935, forcing Haile Selassie into exile in May 1936. Ethiopia was annexed to Eritrea, then an Italian colony, and to Italian Somaliland, forming Italian East Africa. In 1941, British troops routed the Italians, and Haile Selassie returned to Addis Ababa. In 1952, Eritrea was incorporated into Ethiopia. On Sept. 12, 1974, Haile Selassie was deposed, the constitution suspended, and Ethiopia proclaimed a Socialist state under a collective military dictatorship called the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC), also known as the Derg. U.S. aid stopped, and Cuban and Soviet aid began. Lt. Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam became head of state in 1977. During this period Ethiopia fought against Eritreans secessionists as well as Somali army. A group called the Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front seized the capital in 1991, and in May a separatist guerrilla organization, the Eritrean Peoples Liberation Front, took control of the province of Eritrea. The two groups agreed that Eritrea would have an internationally supervised referendum on independence. This election took place in April 1993 with almost unanimous support for Eritrean independence. Ethiopia accepted and recognized Eritrea as an independent state within a few days. The different nationalities in Ethiopia and how they can co-exist without a conflict was always the issue. The question of nationalities in Ethiopia has been the most contentious issue since Ethiopia took its current shape between the late 1880s and the early 1900s. The northern part of the present day Ethiopia, inhabited by the majority Abyssinians and the minority Kushitic Agews existed for over 2 Millennia in the name of the Abyssinian Kingdom with remarkable civilizations such as A xum, Lalibela and Gonder. However, Ethiopia as we know it today is the result of the internal expansion by King Minelik II of Shoa during the late 1880s until the early 1900s. The majority (70%) of the current Ethiopian population, which lives in the southern, western and eastern regions of the country became part of the present day Ethiopia only during this period of internal expansion. The majority Kushitic peoples such as Sidama, Oromo, Afar, Ogaden, etc and the Omotic peoples such as Wolayita, Gamo, Gofa, Dawuro, Konta, etc and the Nilotic peoples living in the border between Ethiopia and the Sudan all became part of the present day Ethiopia between the 1880s and early 1900s. Historical evidences suggest that the rivalry between the two colonial powers, Britain and France in the horn of Africa, during the Scramble (competition) for Africa, facilitated the rapid Abyssinian expansion towards the south, the east and the west during this period. The two colonial powers provided King Minelik II ample rifles and other war materials that other ethnic groups living in the interior lacked. Therefore the King was able to easily subdue these hitherto independent African Kushitic, Omotic and Nilotic states with in a relatively short period of time. Although these peoples were annexed over a century ago, due to lack of sustainable economic development and industrialization as well as limited urbanization, 85 % of them still live off subsistence agriculture in rural areas. The peoples of the South, the East and the West have therefore fully preserved their unique cultures, languages, histories and economic systems until today. Due to the failure of nation building arising primarily from failed economic development and successive dictatorial political systems, the country remained an amalgamation of nations and nationalities who constantly resented being part of a failed state. It is based on this reality that Ethiopians from the South, the East and the West often voice concerns about the issues of nations and nationalities in the past and current Ethiopian politics. This is often misunderstood by their Abyssinian compatriots who unwittingly or intentionally refuse to accept the diversity of the country. The new government (1991) declared the following declaration: Given the Ethiopias existing situation, the problem of nationalities can be resolved if each nationality is accorded full right to self-governance. This means that each nationality will have regional autonomy to decide on matters concerning its internal affairs. Within its environs, it has the right to determine the contents of its political, economic and social life, use its own language and elect its own leaders and administrators to head its internal organs (Leenco Latta 1999:201) Many Ethiopians argue that over mentioned declaration has never been implemented as it is and the current government continues to massacre all its opponents and civilians. 2.2. Historic enmity between Somalia and Ethiopia The historic enmity between the two countries dates back when Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim better known as Ahmed Gurey/gragn who was ethnic Somali general who conquered Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 16th century. By the summer at 1532 the Imams well armed troops had overrun almost all Ethiopia,s eastern and southern provinces, among them Dawaro, Bali, Hadeya, Ganz, waj, Fatager and Ifat. (Richard Pankhurst 2001:87) The Ethiopians were forced to ask for help from the Portuguese, who landed at the port of Massawa on February 10, 1541 in the reign of the emperor Gelawdewos . This force was led by Christopher da Gama, and included 400 musketeers and a number of artisans and other non-combatants. In response, Ahmad received 900 well-armed men from the Ottomans in Yemen to assist him. While the Portuguese expedition were victorious in most of their engagements with Ahmads forces, da Gama allowed himself to be trapped by Ahmad somewhere north of the Tekezà © River, where he was killed along with all but 140 of his troops. The survivors and Galawedos were able to join forces, and drawing on the Portuguese supplies, they attacked Ahmad on February 21, 1543 in the Battle of Wayna Daga , where their 9,000 troops managed to defeat the 15,000 soldiers under Ahmad. Ahmad was killed by a Portuguese musketeer, who was mortally wounded in avenging da Gamas death. That episode was described in the book The Ethiopians News of the coming of the Portuguese, and of their powerful military equipment, spread rapidly through northern Ethiopia. Many soldiers who sided with the Imam now abandoned him, and flocked to Lebna Dengels widow empress Sebla Wangel. Dom Christovao and his companions were able to cross the greater part of Tegray, and joined up with the Empress, and with Bahr Nagash Yeshaq, the ruler of the coastal province, without encountering any opposition. They then proceeded westwards to Dambeya, north of Lake Tana, where the confronted the Imam, who in April 1542 for first time in his career encountered an enemy well equipped with cannons. Wounded in battle he was obliged to retreat, but managed to send an urgent appeal to zebid, and promised, in return for renewed Turkish aid, to become a vassal of the Ottoman emperor, Suleiman II. The Turks responded by immediately providing him with ten fields-guns and 700 well-armed soldiers. Thus greatly strengthened he succeeded in defeating the Portugu ese in August, when Dom Christovao was captured and beheaded. (Richard Pankhurst 2001:92) In Ethiopia the damage which [Ahmad] Gragn did has never been forgotten, wrote Paul B. Henze. Every Christian highlander still hears tales of Gragn in his childhood. Haile Selassie referred to him in his memoirs 2.3. Ogaden history The Ogaden is contentious territory between Ethiopia and Somalia and it is inhabited by ethnic Somalis. The occupied/annexed Somali territory inside Ethiopia lies between Oromia (Ethiopian region inhibited by Ethnic Oromo) to the West, Afar land to the Northwest, the Republic of Djibouti to the north, and Kenya to the south and The Somali Republic to the east. Somali agro-pastorals people with a single language, culture, and socio-economic structure inhabit the Ogaden territory. As a fact in many other African countries, the European imperial powers demarcated borders between Somalia and Ethiopia and the border between Somalia and Kenya without taking the political and social divisions into consideration. Imperial partition scattered the Somali people, for example, among five sovereign states. Fellow Somalis were now to be found in British Somaliland, Italian Somaliland, French Somaliland, Ethiopia and Kenya. (Alex Thomson, 2000: 13) The Ogaden Somali people were free and independent until colonial powers from overseas came to Africa and started arming the Abyssinian chiefs in the north of present day Ethiopia. The Abyssinians using the arms and expertise provided by the colonialists captured Harar in 1884 and started raiding Ogaden Somali villages in that area, killing civilians. The Ogaden Somalis resisted vehemently the encroachment of the Abyssinian expansionists and succeeded in halting their advance. Even though the Abyssinian military campaign to conquer the rest of the Somali territory failed, the colonial powers recognized its claim over the Ogaden Somaliland and signed treaties with them. In 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia (Todays Ethiopia) and captured it along with the Ogaden and the territories of other nations in the area. Then the British defeated Italy in the Horn of Africa in 1941, and it administered the Ogaden for eight years until it transferred the first part of the Ogaden (Jigjiga area) to Ethiopia (the Abyssinians) for the first time. The next parts were transferred in 1954 and 1956. Thus, Ethiopia gained the control over the Ogaden without the knowledge or consent of the Ogaden Somalis. From that time onward, successive Ethiopian regimes mercilessly suppressed the Ogaden people and whenever the liberation movements seriously weakened and threatened Ethiopian colonialism, a foreign power directly intervened to re-establish its colonial rule over the Ogaden. Ethiopia since the beginning of this century and up to now has been characterized by one nation using the powers of state to subjugate and exploit all the other nations within that artificial system. For almost one century, the Abyssinians are abusing the concept of sovereignty and statehood to deprive the rights of other people living under the rule of the artificial state of Ethiopia. The historical reality of the process that resulted in its creation also continued to influence the Ethiopian governments interaction with and perception by these peoples. Ethiopian Governments, past and present, are perceived as alien by these people.(Leenco Lata, 1999: 41) It is historically clear that those suppressed nations inside Ethiopia among them Somalis (Ogaden) have always been struggling to be independent from Ethiopia one day. Ethiopia is a state founded on colonial doctrine and bases its rule on the use of force and emergency measures for oppressing the majority of the people and exploiting them. Ethiopia claims that African borders inherited from colonialism should be left intact and it inherited the Ogaden territory from the colonial powers. At the same time, Ethiopia is boasting to be the only African state that was never colonized. This means that Ethiopia has been a participating partner with the colonial powers that divided Africa among themselves but has never relinquished its colonial possessions. To maintain such a colonial state, the rulers had to build a massive military machine and embark on forcefully maintaining one of the most vicious authoritarian rules in the third world. The resultant resistance from the people and the inevitable taxing of material and moral resources of the oppressing elite became Ethiopia Achilles hill and brought about the downfall of its successive regimes. The relentless resistance of the colonized nations and the consequential resource drainage brought down both the rules of Haille Sellassie and the military Junta of Mengistu. The war between Somalia and Ethiopia over Ogaden region in 1964 on the one hand publicized the conflict and brought that cause to the regional and international arenas (Mohamed Abdi, 2007:60) 2.4. Ogaden war 1977 1980 In 1960 northern Somalia got independence from Britain and joined with southern Somalia to form the new state of Somalia. Successive Somali governments objected to the demarcation of the 1,000-mile border with Ethiopia, which was drawn by colonial powers. In 1964, the two countries fought a war over the Ogaden region of eastern Ethiopia, which is home to mainly ethnic Somalis. In 1977 a big war again erupted between Ethiopia and Somalia over Ogaden Territory. By the beginning of the war, the Somali National Army (SNA) was only 35,000-men strong and was vastly outnumbered by the Ethiopian army. However, throughout the 1970s, Somalia was receiving large amounts of Soviet military aid. The SNA had three times the tank force of Ethiopia, as well as a larger air force. By the summer 0f 1977 the Somali victory on the ground was unquestionable, but at the same time the Ethiopian were making headway on the diplomatic front (Mohamed Abdi, 2007:89) 2.5. Soviet and Egyptian role In addition to previous Russian fund and arms support to Somalia, Egypt sent millions of dollars in arms to Somalia, established military training and sent experts to Somalia due to Egypts longstanding policy of securing the Nile River flow by destabilizing Ethiopia. Even as Somalia gained military strength, Ethiopia grew weaker. In September 1974, Emperor Haile Selassie had been overthrown by the Derg.The Derg military dictatorship that came to power in Ethiopia following the ousting of Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia. (The military council), marking a period of turmoil. The Derg quickly fell into internal conflict to determine who would have primacy. Meanwhile, various anti-Derg as well as separatist movements began throughout the country. The regional balance of power now favored Somalia. One of the separatist groups seeking to take advantage of the chaos was the pro-Somalia Western Somali Liberation Front Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLf). The Western Somali Liberation Front was a separatist rebel group fighting in eastern Ethiopia to create an independent state. It played a major role in the Ogaden War of 1977-78 assisting the invading Somali Army. (WSLF) operating in the Somali-inhabited Ogaden area, which by late 1975 had struck numerous government outposts. From 1976 to 1977, Somalia supplied arms and other aid to the WSLF. 2.6. Ethiopia and soviet relationship Mengistu Haile Mariam was the most prominent officer of the Derg, the military junta that governed Ethiopia from 1974 to 1987, and the President of the Peoples Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from 1987 to 1991 as head of state on 11 February, 1977. However, the country remained in chaos as the military attempted to suppress its civilian opponents. Despite the violence, the Soviet Union, which had been closely observing developments, came to believe that Ethiopia was developing into a genuine Marxist-Leninist state and that it was in Soviet interests to aid the new regime. They thus secretly approached Mengistu with offers of aid that he accepted. Ethiopia closed the U.S. military mission and the communications center in April 1977. In June 1977, Mengistu accused Somalia of infiltrating SNA soldiers into the Somali area to fight alongside the WSLF. Despite considerable evidence to the contrary, Barre insisted that no such thing was occurring, but that SNA volunteers were being allowed to help the WSLF. Somalia decided to make a decisive move and invaded the Ogaden in 13 July 1977. Jijiga is a city in eastern Ethiopia and the capital of the Somali Region of that country and locates in the Jijiga Zone approximately 80 km east of Harar and 60 km west of the border with the Republic of Somalia; this city has been inflicted heavy casualties on assaulting forces. The Ethiopian Air Force is the air arm of the Military of Ethiopia and is tasked with protecting the air space, providing support to the ground forces as well as assisting during national emergencies. Air superiority is the dominance in the air power of one sides air forces over the other sides during a military campaign. It is defined in the NATO Glossary as That degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another that permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, and air forces at a given time The USSR, finding itself supplying both sides of a war, attempted to mediate a ceasefire. When their efforts failed, the Soviets abandoned Somalia. All aid to Siad Barres regime was halted, while arms shipments to Ethiopia were increased. Plus Soviet advisors flooded into the country along with around 15,000 from Cuba. The greatest single victory of the SNA-WSLF was a second assault on Jijiga in mid-September, in which the demoralized Ethiopian troops withdrew from the town. The local defenders were no match for the assaulting Somalis and the Ethiopian military was forced to withdraw past the strategic strongpoint of the Marda Pass, halfway between Jijiga and Harar. By September Ethiopia was forced to admit that it controlled only about 10% of the Ogaden and that the Ethiopian defenders had been pushed back into the non-Somali areas of Harerge, Bale, and Sidamo Province However, the Somalis were unable to press their advantage because of the high level of attrition among its tank battalions, constant Ethiopian air attacks on their supply lines, and the onset of the rainy season, which made the dirt roads unusable. During that time, the Ethiopian government managed to raise a giant militia force in its 100,000s and integrated it into the regular fighting force. Also, since the Ethiopian army was a client of U.S weapons, hasty acclimatization to the new Warsaw-pact bloc weaponry took place. From October 1977 until January 1978, the SNA-WSLF forces attempted to capture Harar, where 40,000 Ethiopians backed by Soviet-supplied artillery. Artillery is a military Combat Arms which employs any apparatus, machine, an assortment of tools or instruments, a system or systems used as weapons for the discharge of large projectiles in combat as a major contribution of fire power within the overall military capability of an armed force And Armored fighting vehicle The Ethiopians had regrouped with 1500 Soviet advisors and 11,000 Cuban soldiers. Though it reached the city outskirts by November, the Somali force was too exhausted to take the city and was eventually forced to retreat outside and await an Ethiopian counterattack. The expected Ethiopian-Cuban attack occurred in early February. However, it was accompanied by a second attack that the Somalis were not expecting. A column of Ethiopian and Cuban troops crossed northeast into the highlands between Jijiga and the border with Somalia, bypassing the SNA-WSLF force defending the Marda Pass. The attackers were thus able to assault from two directions in a pincer action, allowing the re-capturing of Jijiga in only two days while killing 3,000 defenders. The Somali defense collapsed and every major Ethiopian town was recaptured in the following weeks. Recognizing that his position was untenable, Siad Barre ordered the SNA to retreat back into Somalia on 9 March 1978. The last significant Somali unit left Ethiopia on 15 March 1978, marking the end of the war. 3.0. Somali state collapse and shift of balance of power in horn of Africa Already in 1980s many rebels supported by Ethiopian government were aiming to oust the former president of Somalia Mohamed said Barre. By the end of the 1980s, armed opposition to Barres government, fully operational in the northern regions, had spread to the central and southern regions. Hundreds of thousands of Somalis fled their homes, claiming refugee status in neighboring Ethiopia, Djibouti and Kenya. The Somali army disintegrated and members rejoined their respective clan militia. Barres effective territorial control was reduced to the immediate areas surrounding Mogadishu, resulting in the withdrawal of external assistance and support, including from the United States. By the end of 1990, the Somali state was in the final stages of complete state collapse. In the first week of December 1990, Barre declared a state of emergency as USC forces advanced toward Mogadishu. In January 1991, armed opposition factions removed Barre out of power, resulting in the complete collapse of th e central government. State collapse in Somalia had become a fact of life in the region. Ethiopia and Somalia both saw the end of dictatorial rule in 1991. But whereas Ethiopia had picked itself up and reconfigured its political landscape, Somalias clan based political dynamics had consistently worked against the re-establishment of a central government. Somalia was fragmented, but by the late 1990s some of its fragments, Notably Somaliland and Punt land in the northwest and northeast of the country respectively, had established their own administrations that fulfilled most of the functions of government As one can imagine the losses and repercussions of the civil war was almost irretrievable. The human cost was terrible. Thousands of civilians were killed and wounded, and at least half a million fled their homes seeking across the border in Ethiopia and in the republic of Djibouti. Thousands of refugees eventually found refuge in Canada, Britain, Scandinavia, Italy and the USA (Ioan Lewis, 2008:71). 3.1. The rise of warlords and the rise of ICU and Ethiopian intervention with economical support from USA With the collapse of the state in January 1991, Somalia became the first country in modern history to become stateless. Consequently, lawlessness became rampant in the country and criminal militias and gangs terrorized the population. A little over a year after the Somali state collapsed, violent confrontations developed between two competing factions in Mogadishu which finally led to one of them using food as a weapon against vulnerable population in southwestern region of the country in Baidoa. Farmers in the region were unable to cultivate their fields due to the fear caused by gangs and with warlords blocking food shipments to the region thousands of people began to slowly waste away. By the time the news media took note of the problem an awful famine was in full swing and tens of thousands of people were deliberately condemned to death through starvation. The United Nations which had a small contingent of peace-keepers was unable to clear bandits off the roads in order to delive r food aid to those who need it. Life conditions became so bad that the first President Bush was moved to act and ordered thousands of American troops to enter Somalia in order to open the roads so emergency food aid can urgently get through to the people. The troops were able to accomplish this task with relative ease and as a result tens of thousands of lives were saved. By contrast, rebuilding Somalias government from scratch was more difficult, even under the best of circumstances, but the US/UN force had ill-defined mandate and got bad advice regarding the causes of Somalias disintegration. American/UN agenda of rebuilding the government was incoherent and led to a failure in which 18 American soldiers were killed by the militias of one of the warlords of Mogadishu. By then a new American President, Clinton, was so shaken by this singular event that he decided to evacuate US forces from Somalia. Other nations who had contributed troops to the campaign and the UN followed and So malia was left to the warlords. The terror of Warlords became the order of the day since 1995 and several attempts to form a national government failed. A most promising effort in this regard was in the neighboring state of Djibouti where representatives of nearly all Somali civil society groups were invited in 1999 excluding warlords. The conference successfully led to the establishment of a Transitional National Government (TNG). However, the Ethiopian government which had supported many of the warlords, particularly Mr. Abdullahi Yusuf, and supplied them with weapons over the years was not happy about the prospect of a civic administration and worked against it from the start. The combination of Ethiopian sabotage and Somali leaders incompetence destroyed this precious chance. At one point the Ethiopian Foreign Minister told the TNGs Foreign Affair chief that Ethiopia will be able to support the Somali government on the condition that their ally, Mr. Yusuf, was appointed as prime minister. The Ethiopian minister was not pleased when he was told that the responsibility to appoint and confirm the PM rested with the president and parliament. In the meantime, Ethiopia used its diplomatic influence in Africa and elsewhere to call for yet another Somali reconciliation conference with the pretext of forming an inclusive government while it continued to supply the warlords with weapons. The proposal was accepted by the Intergovernmental Agency on development (IGAD) and there started another reconciliation process in which the mediators (Kenya and Ethiopia) openly favored and supported the warlords. After two years of negotiations the conference was brought to a conclusion without any reconciliation among Somalis. The Ethiopian government successfully attained its goals of wasting the remaining time of the TNGs tenure, enabled the warlords to appoint more than two-thirds of the members of parliament, and finally succeeded in having its clients selected as president and prime minister. American policy, during the long two years of negotiations in Kenya, was characterized by tacit support for warlords domination of the conference. In the main, the US representatives in Kenya watched the process from the sidelines and seemed they did not like the quality of the output in the form of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG). For nearly two years after the formation of the TFG the American government remained disinterested in the affairs of the TFG. Instead it financed the formation of so called anti-terror alliance which consisted of the very warlords who have killed the population for over a decade. Americas objective in supporting the warlords was to find and arrest three people accused of being involved in the attacks on US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998 and who were presumed to be hiding somewhere in southern Somalia. The warlords contract with the CIA also included capturing or killing those who were considered radical Islamists. Americas warlord projec t backfired as the majority of Mogadishus population sided with the Muslim leaders and rooted the warlords out. American policy makers panicked with the formation of the Union of Islamic Courts (UICs) and the liberation of Mogadishu and surrounding region from the tyranny of the warlords. Shortly after UICs took over Mogadishu senior American policy makers began to speak about the internationally legitimate government of Somalia and actively used Americas diplomatic and other resources to bestow respect on what it previously considered week operation. Meanwhile, Ethiopia activated its propaganda machine and accused the courts of trying to establish a fundamentalist regime which it claimed will endanger its security despite the fact that Somalia did not have an army. It immediately gave a protection force for its client Somali government holed in the regional center of Baidoa. As the Courts spread their reach into most parts of southern Somalia, Ethiopia increased its troop presence in Baidoa into several thousand heavily armed units. The US government encouraged this invasion and used its diplomatic muscle to shield Ethiopia from international criticism. The united American-Ethiopian propaganda machine completed the demonization of the courts as a fundamentalist organization in cahoots with Al Qaida. This joint effort led to US government sponsoring a resolution at the Security Council, 1725, which mandated the deployment of an African Union force in Somalia aimed at protecting the TFG and stabilizing the country. Other countries in the Security Council insisted and prevailed that those countries who share

Digital Television :: essays research papers fc

Digital Television   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On November 1, 1998 computer companies, television makers, broadcasters, and program suppliers have made a transition from analog to digital television. When the FCC passed a law forcing the networks to change from an analog broadcast to a digital broadcast, all the above mentioned industries have been scrambling to get a jump on their competition.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The picture and sound qualities of digital TV broadcasts are the best on Earth. However, at this moment cost remains a big problem. You can spend anywhere from $6,000 to $10,000 at the present time (Booth 80). Once the cost is driven down over the next few years, the average citizen will be able to experience the advantages of digital TV.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Digital TV will allow for a wider screen display, like those screens in movie theaters, and a sharper picture. What causes this perk is the fact that digital signals have a higher bit rate. This allows for more bits to be transmitted into the TV (cable, antenna, or satellite). The more bits a TV can transmit, the better the picture or screen resolution. The digital TV signal can carry as many as 19.4 megabits of data, which means a broadcaster can mix multiple programs of varying bit sizes onto a single channel. Say you’re watching a football game, since one camera view only uses up so many bits, you can select a different camera angle while watching the same game on the same channel. It is possible for a network, like NBC, to show two different programs at the same time on the same channel. Conceivably, if the president in on, you can watch regular scheduled programming.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With the introduction of the digital TV, the introduction of WebTV is upon us. One will be able to surf the internet through the television instead of using their computer. That is how the computer industry is involved in the digital TV. What companies like Sony and Microsoft hope to do is combine the TV and PC into one unit. They believe they can diminish the lines between consumer electronics and computers. Ultimately, both companies would like to make things more convenient and interface both industries. This will force computer companies and television makers to get on the ball and compete with these two corporate giants.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What will the transition to digital TV be like? Like any new radical product transition, the changeover will take some time.

British Airways Swot Analysis Essay

Introduction The growing competency in the airline industry is also subjected in the different economic uncertainties. Due to the high risks in the globalization, the confidence of the business leaders is lowered. This can be caused by the different constraints and challenges that create a great impact in the industry. The recession in most of the developed and successful countries is difficult to assess and the recovering period is not in sight. British Airways stays in the top of the competition and continuously providing the basic services that a world-class airway can offer. However, the influence or the impact of the various economic uncertainties creates a great challenge in the organization. From the different perspective on competition of the propellers, the marketing environment of the organization is bound to change which results in an analysis of the organization’s economic factors. The British Airways expects that due to the tope of the economic challenges, the organization should stay competitive in the industry. Therefore, different theoretical aspects are created in the study to support the aim of the organization in fulfilling their dreams for success. SWOT Analysis British Airways is one of the largest service industries that well managed the operation with an interesting collaboration with the technological innovations. The aim of the organization is to increase the number of customers through delivering the quality of service and satisfaction. Albeit bothered with the challenges in the nature of their business, the airway is still committed to serve in a very ideal way for safety travel. Strengths The most basic strength of the British Airways (BA) that served the entire organization for years is to deliver an adequate solution for travelers in a most safety and satisfying way (Chan, 2000). Aside from the use of various marketing strategies on the world-wide web, the airline marketing and service are performed by most of the females. Prior to the equal labor for both genders, it is considered as the strength of the organization for most of the females are trained to speak in various dialects. It is an advantage for the airways to accommodate various races and at the same time, commit itself to deliver the equal rights in terms of labor (Whitelegg, 2002). Weaknesses The world-wide marketing answer of the BA is entirely prioritizing most of the demands of the clients. But in their strategy in a low cost-ticket can be risky in a long run of the business. Offering the low prices for tickets may not appear harmful in the business but definitely, if the business has greater expenditure over the revenues, there will experience drastic losses (Binggeli and Pompeo, 2002). The creation of the low-cost carriers can weaken the services of some areas because the allotted budget will not satisfy the proposed use of service (Berry, Carnall, and Spiller, 2006). Opportunity The organization’s idea about â€Å"managing the people first† is a tremendous opportunity for their employees. The leaders can create a department wherein most of the people can concentrate on the various marketing strategies such as promotions to enhance the competitiveness of the organization in the industry (Gowler, Ledge, and Clegg, 1993). Another opportunity that the organization may find is their advantage in the use of the quality technologies. Through the innovative ways of the management, the organization can rely on their information systems wherein the strategic marketing and related works can be performed. Through the use of the Internet, the customers can experience the efficiency in online booking and can facilitate the continuous growth of the organization. Threats One major contribution of the BA threats is the increased competition among the airline industry. Through the different competitions, there is a vast option for the customers and most of them choose the best price and service that is fit on their budgets. Through the development of the different explorations, there is a view for the merger and acquisitions (Culpan, 2002). The alliance in the airlines is popular in which the strategies are bind together and the sole action of the organization is limited. Conclusion The British Airways should learn the appropriate on the presented analysis to avoid the drastic changes in their business’s performance. The strategy of the organization to deliver the right service on their customers is a great  advantage because they are aiming for the customer’s satisfaction. But the organization should provide additional strategy to avoid the possible losses. With the appropriate collaboration of the marketing strategies, the BA can create more room of opportunities and strengths that can deliver the entire organization into a great success. References: Berry, S., Carnall, M., & Spiller, P., (2006) â€Å"Airline Hubs: Costs, Mark-ups and the Implications of Customer Heterogeneity’ in Lee, D. (ed)†, Advances in Airline Economics, vol. 1, Competition Policy and Antitrust, Elsevier, Cambridge, USA. Binggeli, U., & Pompeo, L., (2002) â€Å"Hype Hopes for Europe’s Low-Cost Airlines: Europe’s Most Successful No-Frills Carrier Are Making a Lot of Money. But as They Mature, They Will Have Problems Expanding†, The McKinsey Quarterly. Chan, D., (2000) â€Å"The Development of the Airline Industry from 1978 to 1998: A Strategic Global Overview†, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 19, No. 6. Culpan, R., (2002) â€Å"Global Business Alliances: Theory and Practice†, Quorum Books, Westport, CT Gowler, D., Ledgge, K., & Clegg, C., (1993) â€Å"Culture and Commitment: British Airways by Heather Hopfl’ Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management†. London: Paul Chapman Publi shing Whitelegg, D., (2002) â€Å"Cabin Pressure: The Dialectics of Emotional Labor in the Airline Industry†, The Journal of Transport History, Vol. 23, No. 1 Read more: http://ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/2010/03/an-analysis-of-british-airways-marketing-environment.html#ixzz14VGZrJmz

Paris, the Trojan Prince

Paris, the Trojan Prince Before there was a celebrity named Paris or a city of lights sharing the name (see II), there was another famous Paris connected with the most famous war in history. Paris (Alexandros/Alexander) was the son of King Priam of Troy and Queen Hecuba. Hecuba had a dream about the great trouble her unborn child would cause, so when Paris was born, instead of raising him, she ordered him exposed on Mt. Ida. Normally exposure of an infant meant death, but Paris was lucky. He was suckled by a she-bear, then raised to adulthood by a shepherd. (If this sounds familiar, it should. In Romes founding legend, the twins Romulus and Remus were suckled by a wild she-wolf, and then raised by a shepherd.) Discord, in an act worthy of her name, gave a golden apple to the most beautiful goddess, but neglected to name her. She left that choice to the goddesses, but they couldnt decide among themselves. When they couldnt prevail upon Zeus to decide who was most beautiful, they turned to Paris. The 3 goddesses vying for the honor were Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite. Each goddess offered something of great value as a bribe to make Paris name her as the most beautiful. Paris might have made his choice based on looks, but he chose the ​beauty goddess Aphrodite for her bribe. She rewarded him by making the most beautiful mortal, Helen, wife of Menelaus, fall in love with him. Paris then abducted Helen and took her to Troy, thereby starting the Trojan War. Death of Paris In the war, Paris (Achilles killer) was fatally wounded by one of Hercules arrows. Ptolemy Hephaestion (Ptolemaeus Chennus) says Menelaus killed Paris. Philoctetes died bitten by a serpent and Alexander was killed by Menelaus with a blow of the spear in his thigh.Photius (9th century Byzantine patriarch) Bibliotheca - Epitome of Ptolemy Hephaestion

Free Essays on School Unifroms

School Uniforms A school uniform, â€Å"to be or not to be† is the question for many schools’s today. Many schools are beginning to adopt school uniforms while others are still resistant. In David Kommer’s article Beyond Fashion Patrol: School Uniforms for the Middle Grades, he talks about his positive experiences with school uniforms. He should know because he is the principal of Lake Center Middle School in Los Angeles, California. Kommer highlights the middle school adolescents feeling of well-being, parental support, improving school pride, and overall better school atmosphere due to school uniforms. He also gives some advice of how to begin a school uniform policy successfully. The author begins his article by talking about the problem of gang violence in today’s schools. Uniform policies are being used to help prevent gang violence in some areas. In his experience it didn’t solve the gang problem completely, but did create a better atmosphere in his school. Uniform policies are a good opportunity for school’s to give adolescents a comfortable setting enabling them to grow. School uniforms give students a sense of belonging and they take pride in being apart of their school. In my opinion I think school uniforms are a good idea for all schools. I don’t think it makes a difference if your school has a gang problem or any other problem to need a dress code. This article proves that students can benefit in many different ways from uniforms. In the middle school grades students are going through adolescents, and their self-esteem is very important to them. School uniforms can help the poorer students who don’t have enough money for nicer clothes. The equality of school uniforms will create a better school atmosphere as well.... Free Essays on School Unifroms Free Essays on School Unifroms School Uniforms A school uniform, â€Å"to be or not to be† is the question for many schools’s today. Many schools are beginning to adopt school uniforms while others are still resistant. In David Kommer’s article Beyond Fashion Patrol: School Uniforms for the Middle Grades, he talks about his positive experiences with school uniforms. He should know because he is the principal of Lake Center Middle School in Los Angeles, California. Kommer highlights the middle school adolescents feeling of well-being, parental support, improving school pride, and overall better school atmosphere due to school uniforms. He also gives some advice of how to begin a school uniform policy successfully. The author begins his article by talking about the problem of gang violence in today’s schools. Uniform policies are being used to help prevent gang violence in some areas. In his experience it didn’t solve the gang problem completely, but did create a better atmosphere in his school. Uniform policies are a good opportunity for school’s to give adolescents a comfortable setting enabling them to grow. School uniforms give students a sense of belonging and they take pride in being apart of their school. In my opinion I think school uniforms are a good idea for all schools. I don’t think it makes a difference if your school has a gang problem or any other problem to need a dress code. This article proves that students can benefit in many different ways from uniforms. In the middle school grades students are going through adolescents, and their self-esteem is very important to them. School uniforms can help the poorer students who don’t have enough money for nicer clothes. The equality of school uniforms will create a better school atmosphere as well....